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百度巴黎圣母院于1345年最后完成了原定的设计方案，基本落成，整个工程历时180多年。

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????????? ??????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????????? ??? ??? ? ??? ???????? ?????? ????. ???? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????????. ???????????? ???? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ??? ??????????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ????-?????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????? ???? ????????? ????????? ???????????.

?????? ????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????????. ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? (??????) ???????? ? ?????????? ???????????????? ? ??? ?????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? (??????? ???? ?? ?????) ? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????????. ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ?????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???????????.

???????????? (?????) ???????? ???? ? ????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ??????????. ???? ????????? ????????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????????????. ?????????? ???????????? (????) ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ????? ????????? ??????????.

????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????????. ????????? ???? ???????? ????? ????????????? (??? ? ?????) ? ???????????? (??? ????????) ??????????? ???-??? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????????.^[??] ?????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ???????? (???????? ????) ?????????????? ?????????.^[??] ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? (????) ???? ??????? ??????????? (????) ???-???????? ?????? ? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? (??????? ????????) ???? ???? ???????. ????? ? ??????????? (????? ????????) ????????????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???-? ???????. 14 ??????? ????????? (??????) ??-????? ??-??? (????? ??????) ???? ???? ??? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? (????? ?????????) ? ????? ????? ??????? ???????????? (??????? ?????????) ???? ^[??]? ?????????? (?????) ???????????? ???????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ^[??]? ??????????????????? ??????????? ???????????? ^[??] ? ?????????????? ^[??] ? ?.. ??? ???? ???? ? ???? ??????? ????????.

????? ??? ? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????????. ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? (????????) ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? (???) ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????????? (???? ???) ????? ? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????????. ???? ????????? 19. ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ????? ????????? (????? ????) ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ????????. ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ? ????????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????. 1905-?? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ? ?????? ??????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????????. ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ????????????.

???????

??? ??? ??????? ??????? 19. ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????????? ????????? ??? ?????????. ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???????? (??????????)? ??????????? ????????? ??????? (????? ?????)? ?????????????????? ????????? ???????????? (?????? ?????) ???? ??? ?????????? ????????.

???????? (?????) ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ? ????? (?????????? ?????????) ?????????. ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????????.

????? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ? ??? ?????? ???? ??????????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????. ???????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ^[??] ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? (?????? ?????) ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????????. .^[??] 9. ????? ??????? ??-???????? ???? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ???????-????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????. ??? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??-????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????????? (??????) ?????? (??????????) ??? ???????? ?????????? ? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????????. ?? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????? ??????? 18. ? 19. ??????? ????????? ???????????. .^[??] ??? ???? ???????? (???? ??? ????)^[??] ? ??? ??????? (???? ??? ?????) ^[??]^[??] ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ?????????.^[??]

??????????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? (?????? ???????)? ????? ?????? ^[??] '?? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ^[??]? ???????? ????????? (????)? ? ?????????? ????? ????? ^[??]^[??]? ?????? ? ???????????? ?????????? ????????? ^[??] ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????. ?????????? (?????) ????????????? ???????? (???? ?????) ???-????????? ?????????? (????? ?????) ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????????.

????????? (???????????????)

?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ????????? ???? ??????????????? ????? ? ??????????? ????? ????????? ??? ?????????. ??????? ? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ? ???????????????? ???? ???? ??????????.

??? ????? ???? ?????? ???????????????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????. ?????? ???????? (????????) ????????????? ???????? (??????????-?????) ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ? ??? ????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????. ????? ?? ??? ???????????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??-?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ? ???? ????? ?????????: "?? ????? ... ?????? ??? ??? ????????? ??? (???)? ???? (?????????) ?????? ? ?????? ??? ????????? ??? (???)? ???? ??????? ????????? ???-?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ..." ^[??] ??????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ???? ? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ????????.^[??]

?? ?? ??? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???????? ^[??] ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ^[??] ? ????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ^[??] ????? ??????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????????? (Auguste Comte) ^[??] ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????????? ???????? ??????? ???????.^[??] ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????????????????????????.^[??] ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? (Herbert Spencer) ? ????? ????? ?????? (Lewis Henry Morgan) ???? ????? ???? ???????????.^[??] 19. ????? ? 20. ????? ?????????? ????? ?????? (émile Durkheim)? ???????? ?????? (Vilfredo Pareto)? ? ???? ????? (Max Weber) ???? ??????? ???????????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ????????.

????? ????

???????????? (Niccolò Machiavelli) ???????? ??????????? ??????

????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????????. ????? ?????????????? ????? (???????) ????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ? ????? ???????? ????. ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? (?.??. 350-283) ????? ???????? ??????????? ? ??????? ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ???? ???????????? (Arthashastra) ???? ??????? ???????. ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? (Homeros)? ???????? (Hesiodos) ? ????????? (Tukididis) ???? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ? ???????? (?????) ???? ????????????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ? ????????????? ???? ?????. ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ? ?????? ????????? ????????? ? ??????????????.

????? ?????? (???? ????) ????? ????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ????? ??????????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????????. ???????????? (Augustinus) ????????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???-????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ? ???????????? ?????????? ? ?? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ??. ???? ????????????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????. ????? 11. ????? ???????????? (??????????) ??????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????????. ????? ????? ? ????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????????? ??? ??? ????????? ? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????-? ?????? (Muhy?-i Gül?en?)? ??? ???? ??-????????? (Hasan Kaf? el-Akhisar?)? ????? ???? (Katip ?elebi) ???? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????.

???????? ???????? ????????? ????? ???????? (Niccolò Machiavelli) ??????? ???????? (Il Principe) ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????. ????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? (n?l?r?) ????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ? ?????????????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ????????. ????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ????? (Jean Bodin) ?????? ? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? (Les Six livres de la République) ???? ???? ???? ????????? ????????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????.

??? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? 19. ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ????????? 1880-?? ????? ???-?? ???? ????? ???? ????? (????????) ???????? ? ???? ?????? 1903-?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????????. ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???????????? ????? ???? ????????? ???????????.

?????????

?? ??? ????????? (???? ?????) ???? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ? ????? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??????????. ??????? ? ???????? (?????) ???? ????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ? ?????????????? ??? ?????????.^[??] ??????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ^[??] ? ?????? ??????????^[??] ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???????????????.

??? ????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????????? (???????????) ?????? ?????????????? 8. ????? ??????? ??????????.^[??] ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????????? "??? ?????????" ??????? ????? ?????????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? (????????)? ?????????????? (????????) ???????? ??????????? ????????????.^[??] ???? ??? ???? ??-???? (Ahmed bin Sehl el-Belh?) ??? ? ??? ????????????? ?????? ? ????-???? ??????????? ???????? ???? ???? ??????????????? ???? ???????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????????.^[??] ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????????? (???????) ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ???????? ??? ?????????: ?????????? ??? ????? ? ?? ????????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? ??? ????????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????.^[??] ????????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???-? ???????. ????????? ?? ??? ?????????????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ^[??] ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ? ????? ?????????.

??????? ??? ????? (René Descartes)? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????????.^[??] ??????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????. ???????? ???? ????? ????? (Thomas Willis) ???? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ??????????? ????????????. ??????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????? (??????????) ????????????? ???????????? ??? ??? (John Locke) ? ????? ??? (David Hume) ???? ????????????? ????? ?????? ??????????.^[??]

??????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????? ? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ????????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????-????????? ? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???????-??????????? ???????? ???????????. ???? ????????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????. ?? ??????? ?????????? ? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ????? ????? ?????????. ????? ???? ?????? ???? (Wilhelm Wundt) 1879-????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????????.^[??] 1890 ?????? ?????????? ????????? (??????????) ???? ??????? ????? (Sigmund Freud) ???? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ???? ??? ????????? ???????????????. ?? ?? ??? ???????????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????????? ????? ?? ^[??]^[??] ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ????????????. ???? 1890????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ?????? (?van Pavlov) ?????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ????????????. ???? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ????????? ???????????.

???????????

?? ?? ??? ???????????? (?????? ?????????) ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ? ? ???????????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???????????????? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ????? ???????????? ???????????. ????? ??-?????? ???? ??????????????? ?????????? ????????? ? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????????? ???????????? ? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????? ? ?????? ??????????? ?????-????? "???? ??????????" ??????? ???????????????.^[??] ??????? ?????? ???? (?????????)? ?????? ????? (?? ????) ???????? ? ????? ???? ????? ? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????. ??????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????.^[??]

???? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ???????????? ? ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ? ???????? ????????? ???????? (?????? ???? ??? ????) ??????????????? ??????????. ??????????? 19. ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? 1860 ??????? ???? ???????????????? ???????? ?? ??????? ? ???????? ???? ????????????? ???????????????? ??????????????.^[??] ???????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????? (Edward Burnett Tylor)? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???? ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? .^[??] ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ? ?? ?????-????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? "?????????" ???? ????????????????.^[??] 19. ??? ? 20. ????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????.^[??] 20. ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ??????????????? (?????????) ???????????? ????????? ???? ?????????? 1970 ???? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????????.^[??] ??????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ^[??]^[??] ???? ?? ???????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????? ???? ????????? ? ???? ?????????????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????????? ??????? ??? ????????????.^[??]

???????? ?????

20. ????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????????? ????? ????? ???????? ? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ?????????????? ??????????????. ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????. ?????? ???????? (Alfred Nobel) ????? ??????? 1901 ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ???????.^[??]^[??] ?? ??? ?????????????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????????? ? ???????????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????.

????? ????????????????? ???? ?????????

????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? (Marie Curie) ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ????? ???-??? ???????????????. ????????????? ?????????????? ?????? ????? 1903-?? ?????? ????? ?????????? ? 1911-?? ????? ????? ?????????? ????? ???????????????.^[??]^[??] ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? (Annalen der Pysik) ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ? ??????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ^[??] ??????? ???????????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ^[??] ? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ^[??] ???????????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???????. ?????? ????????? ? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???????. ?????? ???????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????????????? ??????? ??????? 1921 ?? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ????? ???????????.^[??]^[??]

?????????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????? (Carl Friedrich Gauss) ?? ????? ????????????????? ???? ?????? ???????????.^[??] ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????. ??????? ????????????? ?????????????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? (Bernhard Riemann) ????????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????.^[??]

20. ????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? (Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan) 3000 ?? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? (hipergeometrik seriler) ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ???? ????????? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????. ???? ???????? (Kurt Godel) ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????. ?????? 20. ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ???????????? ??????? (Principia Mathematica Gibi Dizgelerin Bi?imsel Olarak Karar Verilemeyen ?nermeleri üzerine)^[??] ???????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????. ?????? ??????? 20. ????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????????.

1953-?? ?????? ?.???.??? DNA -??? ?????????? ????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? (Francis Crick) ^[??]? ????? ?????? (James Dewey Watson) ^[??] ? ????? ??????? (Maurice Wilkins) ^[??] ?????? ????????????? ????????????? ????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ???????? ??????? ?.???.??? DNA ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????????? ???????. ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????.

????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????

????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????????. ?? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ??? ?????????? ???? ?????? ? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???? ????????. ???? ????????? ???????????? ????? ? ????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ? ?????????? ???? ???????????.

??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???????????????. ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????? ????????????????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ???? ???? ?????????????. ???????? ^[??] ???? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? (?????) ????????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????. ??????????? (?????????) ???????????????? ????????? ????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????. . ??????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ????. ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ? ???????? ????????????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????????.

??????? ??????????????????

??????? ?????????????????? (? ?? ??????? ??????) ???????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????????. ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????. ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????. ?? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ? ?????? ????? ????????????????. ???? ???? ???? ????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????? ? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ????. ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????????? ? ??? ? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????. ?????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ? ????? ????????????????. ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????????? ??????: ???? ? ??????? ^[??]. ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ? ???? ????? (? ?? ???? ?????) ?????????? ??????? ? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? (? ?? ???? ?????) ??? ????????? ????? ???? ? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ^[??]. ????? ????????? ???? ?????????????? ????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ????? ?????????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? ^[??]. 10. ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ? ????????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ????????????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ^[??]. ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????????: ???????-?????????? ????? ?????????? (???-?????)? (????????) ????? (es-ser’iyye el-va’ziyye)? ? ??? ??????? ????? ????? (??- ????? ??-??????? – el-felsefe elhak?kiyye) ^[??]. ?? ?????????????? ?????????? ????? ? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? (?????) ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ^[??]. ????? ????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????????? ^[??]. ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ^[??]. ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ? ???? ??? ???? ???????: ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ????????^[??].

??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? (human faculties") ???? ????????. ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? "??????"? "???? ????" ? "???" ???. ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ^[??]. ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??????????? ^[??]. ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ?????????????????? (????????) ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ^[??].

??????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ? ??????? ??? ??????????????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ?. ?. ?????? ??????? ???????????^[??]. ???? (C. S. Peirce) ??? ???????????????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????: ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ? ???? ^[??]. ????? 1902-?? ??? ???????? ?????????????????? ????????? (Aritmetik) ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????????????? ???????????? ??? ???????????????? ??????? ^[??]. ?? ????????????????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????????: ???? ? ???????. ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ????? ? ???????????? ????? ????? ^[??]. 1903????? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????????????? ?????????????? ^[??].

?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????????? (???? ??????? ??????) ???????^[??]? ???? ?? ???? ??????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ^[??]. ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ? ????? ?? 20. ????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ^[??]. ????? ?????????????? ? ??????????????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ? ????????? ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ??????????: ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? (?? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????) ? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ???????? ????^[??].

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??? ????????? ??? ???????????? ? ?? ??? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????? ? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ^[??]. ???????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ??????? "???" ???????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? (????? ??????? ???????? ^[??]? ????? ???????? ^[???]? ????? ???????? ^[???] ????) ?? ???? ???? ^[???].

??? ???????????? ???? ????????? ????????????????? ?? ??????????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??????????????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ???????? ^[???]^[???]. ??? ???? ????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ???? ????????? ????? ???????? ??? ????????? ??????? ? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????????. ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????? ? ????????????? ??? ??????????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ^[???]. ????? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ? ????????????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????????????. ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????????. ????? ???? ??????????? ? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ? ????????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? (Thomas Kuhn) ? ?????? ???????? (Jürgen Habermas) ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ? ???????? ??????????? ? ????????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????????????? ? ??? ???????????? ?????????????? ???????? ^[???]^[???]^[???]]. ??????? ??? ????????????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??????????? 20. ????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ? ??????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???????????? ^[??]^[???]^[???] ???? ?? ??????????????? ??????? ?????? ? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ? ??????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ^[??].

???? ?????? ???? ?????????? ? ????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ?????????. ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????????? ????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????????????????? ???? ????????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ^[???]^[???].

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??? ????????????????? (????????????????). ???? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????? ? ???????????? ??????? ???????.^[???]^[???]
??? ???????????. ???? ?? ??? ????????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????????.^[???]^[???]

?? ???????????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ???????:

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??? ???????????????. ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ? ???? ?????? ??? ????????. ?? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????.^[???]
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?17. ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ? ??????? ? ???????????? ???? ?????? ? ???????? ?????????????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????????.^[???] ?

???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??????????????? ???? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????????. ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????. ?? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ^[???]. ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??????????? ? ????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?????. ??????????? ??? ?????????? ??????????????? ???? ??? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ^[???]^[???]? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????????? ^[???] ? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ??? ???????? ????????? ? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ^[???]. ???? ??? ???????? ????????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ^[???]. ?? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????. ???? ????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ???????????? ???? ??????????? ????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ????? ? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ? ????????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????????? ? ??????????????? ???? ????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ????????? – ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????????????????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????????^[???].

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????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? (????????)? ? ?? ?????????? ???????????? ? ???????? ?????????. ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??? ?????????? ??? ??????. ????? ??????????? ????????? ? ????????????? ????? ?????? (? ?? ????? ?????) ???? ??????? ???? ? ??????? ????????? ? ????????????? ????????? ? ????????????? ???????? ? ???? ?????. ???????? ????? ? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ????????? ? ??????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????. ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????-?????????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ^[???]? ??????????? ^[???] ? ???? ??????????? ^[???] ???? .

??????? ???? ???-??? ?? ???? ???? ??????????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????????. ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?? ? ?????? (a priori) ???? ??????????. ?????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ? ????? ??????????? ??????? ????????????. ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????????? ??? ?????????. ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ? ?????????? ???????????????? ?? ???????? ???? ????????? ? ????????? ???????????? (????? ??????) ????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ? ???????????? ???????????? (???????? ? ???? ?????) ??? ? ?????????????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????????.

??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? 20. ????? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????????. ?? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ? ???????? ??????????? ??? ????? ???? ????????????? ??????????????? ???????????????. ??? ???? ???????? (????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?. ???????? (Percy W. Bridgman)? ^[???]) ? ???? ??????????? (????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? (Kay Bailey Hutchinson) ^[???])? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? (????-???)-????????? ???????? (??????) ? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ????? " ??? "????????? ????????? ??????????????.

?????????

???? ?????? ?????? ? ???????????? ???????????? ??????????? ? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ??? ???? ????????????.^[???] ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??????????? Accademia dei Lincei ??? ^[???] 1660-?? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? (???? ??????) ^[???] ? 1666-?? ?????? ??????? Académie des Sciences ^[???] ???? ??????????? ????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ? ??????? ????????????.

??? ???? ????????? ????? (???????????) ???? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??? ?????????? (International Council for Science)? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????????.

?????

?? ???? ??? ????? ?????????????? ???? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ???????. .^[???] ???? ?????? ????????????????? ? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ? ????????????? ???? ?????????????? ? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????. ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? (Journal des S?avans) ? ????????? ??? ??????????? ????????? (Philosophical Transactions)? 1665-?? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????. ?? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ?? 1981-?? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ? ??????? ???????? ???? 11.500 '??.^[???]

??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ?????? ????? ? ?? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????? (??? ?????????)? ????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ?????????????(?????????????). ??? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??? ????? ? ?????????? ?? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ? ??? ????????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ???????.

???? ??????????? ????? ??? ????????? (New Scientist) ? ?? ?????????? ??????? (Scientific American)? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ? ???? ????????? ????????????? ????????? ??? ? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ????? ????????????. ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????????? ? ???? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????????????????.

??????? ? ???????????

???? ??????????? ? ??? ??????

??? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????? ? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ????-??? (fringe science) ? ?? ?????????? ??? ??????????????. ???????? ?? ????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ? ?????????? ???????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????? ?????????????. ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???????. ??? ??? (junk science)? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ? ????????????? ??? ??? ?????? ? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????????????. ??????? ??????????????? ??????????? ????????? ? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ? ????????? ?? ??? ????????????. ?????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ??? ????????? ?? ?????????? ?????. ??? ???????? ?? ??????????? ???? ? ????? ???????? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????? ? ?? ???? ??????????????? ???????? ? ??????????? ?? ??????????? ?????.

??? ???? ??????? ?????? ? ??????????? ??????? ??? (???????) ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????. ?? ??????? ??????????? ? ????? ????????????? ????????? ????? ????????? ? ?????? ? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????????????????????. ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ?. ???????? (Percy W. Bridgman) ^[???] ???? ???? ???????? ? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? (Kay Bailey Hutchinson) ^[???] ???? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ??????????-????????? ???????? ? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ????? "???" ????????? ????????? ??????????????. ???? ??????????? ?? ?? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? (Karl Popper) ???? ??????? ^[???] ? ????????? ^[???] ????????? ?? ?????????. ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? (??????????) ????? ??????? ???? ????? ? ??????? ?????????. ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ??. ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????.^[???] ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? (??????? ??????) ???? ????????? ????? (??????? ????????) ??????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ?? ???????? ????????? .^[???]

????? ????? ? ????

???????? ??? ?????? (Jacques Barzun) ???? "??????????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????" ??????? ????? ?????? ? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????.^[???] ??????? ??????? (Carolyn Merchant)? ?????? ?????? (Theodor Adorno) ? ??. ?. ?????? (E. F. Schumacher) ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? 17. ???????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? ? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ????? (???????????? ?????) ???????? ???????????? ? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????.^[???] ???????? ????? ??????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????.^[???]

????? ???????????? ????? ? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????????????? ???????????? ???????? ? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ? ???????????. ??????? ??????? ?????? (Bernard Rollin)? "??? ? ?????" (Science and Ethics) ???? ???????? ????? ? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ? ????????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????? ? ???? ????? ???????????? ? ????????????? ??????????????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?????.^[???] ?

???? ? ??? ??????????

?????? ????? ???-??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????????? ?? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ? ????????????????????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????????. ???? ??? ??????????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????????????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ? ???????? ??? ?????.^[???] ???? ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????.^[???]^[???]

???????????? ???????????????

???????? ???? ?????? (Carl Gustav Jung) ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????????????????????.^[???] ?????? ????? ?????? (Robert Anton Wilson)? ????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ? ???? ??????? ???????????????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????????.

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??? ???? ??? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ?????????. ??? ? ??? ???-???????? ????? ????????? ? ????????? ?????????. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ? ????? ???? ???? ??????? (??????) ??? ??????? ??????????. ???? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????? ? ?????? ??? ???? ????????????? ???? ? ???????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????????. ???? ??????????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ??????????? ????? ?????????.

????? ???? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ? ???-?????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????-?? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????????????????. – ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????. ???????? 19. ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ???-?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????????. ?? ???????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ???????????? ????? ?? ???? ????????????? ?????? ????????? ? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????.^[???] ?? ?? ??? ?? ??????? 19. ????? ??? ?????? ?????? (John William Draper) ? ????? ??????? ???? (Andrew Dickson White) ???? ?????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????? ??? ???? ??? ??????????? ?????? ? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ????????????.^[???] ???? ?? ??? ??????? (Mikolaj Kopernik)?]],^[???] ?????? (Galileo Galilei)? ?????? (Johannes Kepler) ? ????? (Boyle) ???? ??? ??? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ^[???] ?????? ^[???] ? ???-? ????? ^[???] ???? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ? ????????? ????????? ????. ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ???? ????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???????????. ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (Richard Dawkins) ??? ???? ????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ????????????.^[???] ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ? ??????????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??. ?????? (Kenneth R. Miller) ????.^[???]

????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????????????? ???????? ???-??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ? ??? ???-???????? ??????????????? ??????????? ??????????. ?????-????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ? ?? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ??????????? ??????????. ?????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??? ? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????????????.^[???] ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ? ????? ???-???????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????? ???-??????? ????????? ???????????????? ????? ??????????? ? ?? ????? ???-?????????? ????????? ?????????????? ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????????????? ??????? ???????????.??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????????????.^[???]

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????????? ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????????????? ????????. ???? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????? ????????? ? ????? ???????????. ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????????? ?????? ????????????? ???? ??????. ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????????.

????? ???????

???????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ? ?????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????????? "??????" ????? ???????????. ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? 12 ??? 1219-?? ????? ????????? ???? III ?????? ??????? ????????????. ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? – "??????????" ????????????. ??? ??? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ???????. ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????? (???. ??????????? – "???????? ?????"? "????? ?????") ???? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ? ???? ????????????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ????. ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????. ????????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?????????. ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????????. ????? ???????? ????????????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????? (???????? ????????) ???????????? ???? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????????????? ????? ????. ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ???????????? (???. ????????????? – "????????") ???????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ????????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ????. ?? ???????? ??????????????? ????? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ????. ??????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? (???. ????????? – "????? ?????" (????????)) ???????????. ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????. ?? ????-????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????.

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???? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? :

????? ???????? — ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???????. ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ???????. ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????.
??????? ???????? — ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ????. ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????.
???? ?????????? ???????? — ??????????????? ????? ????????????? ????? ????????? ????.
???? ??????? ????? ???????? — ???? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????? ????? ????????? ????.
???????? ???????? — ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ????? ???????: ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????.
???? ???????? — ????????? ??????????? ???????? ????.
??? ???? ???????? — ??????????? ???????? ??? ? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????.
??????? ???????? — ???????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????.
?????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????— ????? ????? ????????????? ???? ????????.
?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????? ????? — ????? ????? ?????????????? ????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ???? ????????.

??? ?? ???

?????

???????

?????????

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^ ^????? ^????? Siepmann, J. P. (1999). "What is Science? (Editorial)". Journal of Theoretics. 3. 2025-08-04-?? ????????.
^ ^????? ^????? Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ Benvenuto nel sito dell'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
^ Brief history of the Society. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ The French Academy of Sciences, 1666-91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666-83) and Louvois (1683-91). ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ Ziman, Bhadriraju (1980). "The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process". Science. 208 (4442): 369–371. doi:10.1126/science.7367863. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (????)
^ Scientific and Technical Information Resources. ISBN 0824782976. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |ilk= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |son= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yay?mc?= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |y?l= ignored (|date= suggested) (????)
^ Realism and the Aim of Science. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |b?lüm= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |ilk= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |son= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |sürüm= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yay?mc?= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |yazarba?lant?s?= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yer= ignored (|location= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |y?l= ignored (|date= suggested) (????)
^ Logik der Forschung, new appendix *XIX (Logic of scientific discovery isimli ?ngilizce sürümde henüz bulunmamaktad?r)
^ Karl Popper: Objective Knowledge (1972)
^ Bu meseledeki ?e?itli konumlar?n ele?tirel incelenmesi Karl R. Popper'in " Tarihselcili?in Sefaleti" (The Poverty of Historicism) eserinde bulunabilir.
^ Jacques Barzun, Science: The Glorious Entertainment, Harper and Row: 1964. p. 15. (quote) and Chapters II and XII.
^ ^????? ^????? Fritjof Capra, Uncommon Wisdom, ISBN 0-671-47322-0, p. 213
^ Science and Ethics. ISBN 0521857546. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ilk= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |son= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yay?mc?= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |y?l= ignored (|date= suggested) (????)
^ Science journalism must keep a critical edge. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.
^ McIlwaine, S. (2005). "Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science?". Australian Studies in Journalism. 14: 41–60. 2025-08-04-?? ????????. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (????)
^ Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. ISBN 0691017948. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ilk= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |sayfa= ignored (|page= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |son= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yay?mc?= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |yazarba?lant?= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |y?l= ignored (|date= suggested) (????)
^ David B. Wilson writes about the development of the conflict thesis in "The Historiography of Science and Religion" the second essay in "Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0."
^ Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0
^ Pogge, Richard. "A Brief Note on Religious Objections to Copernicus." Astronomy 161: An Introduction to Solar System Astronomy URL eri?im tarihi: 19 A?ustos 2008.
^ Afnan, Soheil M.. "Avicenna: His Life and Works." s. 168.
^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.. "Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni." The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Archived 2025-08-04 at the Wayback Machine. URL eri?im tarihi: 29 Temmuz 2008.
^ Steffens 2006 (cf. Review of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.)
^ Interview with Richard Dawkins.
^ Ken Miller: Reconciling Science and Faith..
^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 8-9, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513580-6.
^ Stephen Jay Gould. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the fullness of life. Ballantine Books, 1999.

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[18] Anaximenes of Miletus ?ναξιμ?νη? (Miletli Anaksimenes)

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[24] Parmenides Παρμεν?δη?

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[126] Bu meseledeki ?e?itli konumlar?n ele?tirel incelenmesi Karl R. Popper'in " Tarihselcili?in Sefaleti" (The Poverty of Historicism) eserinde bulunabilir.

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[130] Science journalism must keep a critical edge. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.

[131] Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.

[132] McIlwaine, S. (2005). "Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science?". Australian Studies in Journalism. 14: 41–60. 2025-08-04-?? ????????. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (????)

[133] Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle. ISBN 0691017948. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ilk= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |sayfa= ignored (|page= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |son= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |yay?mc?= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (????); Unknown parameter |yazarba?lant?= ignored (????); Unknown parameter |y?l= ignored (|date= suggested) (????)

[134] David B. Wilson writes about the development of the conflict thesis in "The Historiography of Science and Religion" the second essay in "Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0."

[135] Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0

[136] Pogge, Richard. "A Brief Note on Religious Objections to Copernicus." Astronomy 161: An Introduction to Solar System Astronomy URL eri?im tarihi: 19 A?ustos 2008.

[137] Afnan, Soheil M.. "Avicenna: His Life and Works." s. 168.

[138] O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.. "Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni." The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Archived 2025-08-04 at the Wayback Machine. URL eri?im tarihi: 29 Temmuz 2008.

[139] Steffens 2006 (cf. Review of Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist. ????????? ???? ???????? on 2025-08-04. ???????????2025-08-04.)

[140] Interview with Richard Dawkins.

[141] Ken Miller: Reconciling Science and Faith..

[Goodman-8-9-142] Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 8-9, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513580-6.

[143] Stephen Jay Gould. Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the fullness of life. Ballantine Books, 1999.

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